Pandit 2020 in Human Nature on class formation:
doi: 10.1007/s12110-020-09370-9
Alas, not open source. I quote parts below. They have a model for power skwe and resource control that predicts splitting into classes.
Abstract:
"Most human societies exhibit a distinct class structure, with an elite, middle classes, and a bottom class, whereas animals form simple dominance hierarchies in which individuals with higher fighting ability do not appear to form coalitions to “oppress” weaker individuals. Here, we extend our model of primate coalitions and find that a division into a bottom class and an upper class is inevitable whenever fitness-enhancing resources, such as food or real estate, are exploitable or tradable and the members of the bottom class cannot easily leave the group. The model predicts that the bottom class has a near flat, low payoff and always comprises at least half the society. The upper class may subdivide into one or more middle class(es), resulting in improved payoff for the topmost members (elite). The model predicts that the bottom class on its own is incapable of mounting effective counter-coalitions against the upper class, except when receiving support from dissatisfied members of the middle class(es). Such counter-coalitions can be prevented by keeping the payoff to the lowest-ranked members of the middle classes (through concessions) well above that of the bottom class. This simple model explains why classes are also absent in nomadic hunter-gatherers and predominate in (though are not limited to) societies that produce and store food. Its results also agree well with various other known features of societies with classes."
From the article:
"We assume a discrete group of finite size, containing self-interested individuals (in most cases men) who strive to maximize their payoffs, and thus their fitness. These individuals compete for access to resources, leading to dominance ranks based on power. "
" the payoff distribution as a function of dominance rank (related tofighting ability) is a geometric series"
"Individuals can also form coalitions ... The power of a coalition is assumed to increase monotonically with the number of participating individuals and their individual power. "
"we introduce a new parameter, the exploitability (or equivalently, tradability or normalized price) of the contested resources.
" stored food, as found in sedentary or complex foragers (Keeley1988 ) or food-producing societies, or real estate is much more easily appropriated or taxed, and therefore exploited, especially if these resources are in high demand and their supply can be controlled."
"The feasibility of all-down coalitions requires a“pivot point” in rank index,Nu,such that the combined power of the individuals ranked above the pivot is greater than that of the individuals ranked below it"
" the bottom class constitutes at least half of the group and its size is a monotonically increasing function of the skew in power"
"we will define the term“revolution”as a successful coalition that prevents viable class-forming all-down coalitions, essentially eliminating the entire class structure (at least temporarily). One of the key results of the model is that the bottom class alone can never mount an effective revolution. However, inclusion of few members from one of the middle classes makes this coalition feasible. "
"No animal groups are known to form classes, in which an elite exploits other same-sexed individuals in the group. Importantly, neither do mobile foragers and simple horticulturalists among humans, whereas in human societies with intensive farming, class formation became ubiquitous"
"The upper class may split up in two or more classes, with higher classes becoming ever smaller"
"the bottom class is indifferent to the structural change swithin the upper class—for example, whether or not it splits into several subclasses, or how the elite internally apportions its gains. Under the model, revolutions can only happen when disaffected members of the middle class(es) join the bottom class because their payoffs have become too low to set them apart and they would be able to improve their payoff after a revolution and the subsequent renewed elite formation, which is inevitable under the model. The top members of the elite should therefore be especially concerned with preventing the lowest members of the upper class from defecting."
" the absence of classes among mobile foragers is due to the absence of resources that can be hoarded and thus exploited: food isconsumed immediately, and not stored (Sahlins1972 ). The same condition is found among simple horticulturalists: they also store little food because they tend to harvest resources (e.g., tubers) as needed (Scott 2017 ). The exploitability increased as foragers became sedentary and began to store massive amounts of food on a seasonal basis"
"The bottom class cannot prevent the subdivision in the upper class, but it can potentially make exploitation by the elite less profitable. Whenever the total amount of resource depends on production by the bottom class, they may refuse to produce the resources exploited by the elite, or they may escape altogether if emigration is possible ... the bottom class may also lower the“value” (exploitability) of the contested resource by changing either the availability of the resource or the nature of resource itself—for example, instead of relying on farming products, rely more on hunted or gathered resources"
"our simple model indicates that for societies in which resources available to individuals can be appropriated or traded, a class structure will spontaneously emerge, especially if less-powerful individuals cannot easily emigrate. It was developed with prehistoric small-scale societies with simple agriculture in mind to explain the transition from the egalitarian social system of nomadic foragers to a society with an elite, one or more middle classes, and a bottom class. Nonetheless, it also generated various other features generally associated with modern, complex states, which suggests that a class-based social structure is a fundamental feature of societies in which resources are exploitable or tradable, with considerable historical continuity."
sidd
